The history of Starfleet uniforms is long and varied, and reaches back earlier than the dawn of the Federation itself. But despite a wide-ranging colorful history, each era of Starfleet uniforms can be placed into one of two categories: lots of colors (one for each department), or few colors (departments grouped into divisions). The department-specific approach was used for about 80 years, from the mid 2270s (Star Trek: The Motion Picture) through the mid-century mark of the 24th century, giving each department (Command, Helm, Navigation, Engineering, Communications, Security, Services, Sciences, and Medical) a unique color.
For the rest of Starfleet history, a simplified structure has been employed, grouping various departments into what Memory Alpha and others have deemed “divisions,” with a single color per division. Despite many tweaks in the color assignments, the divisions themselves have remained remarkably consistent across 60 years of production history (and some three centuries of in-universe history.)
I propose that uniform color reflects fundamental differences in the basic approaches of each department.
Sciences
The departments in the “Sciences Division” focus on analysis of primary data sources.
The biologist works directly from her data, the doctor works directly from his patient's symptoms and readings. They are inherently skeptical and conservative in their approaches, methodical, with a preference for slower work that dives very deep. They synthesize conclusions based directly on their immediate findings.
Their work is generally fairly focused on a specific area– in theory, complications won't swing in from left field. Doctors have it more complicated– their approach does resemble those used in the command division, to some degree (see below). But the inherent skepticism, as well as the scientific rigor of their work and their historical connection to the sciences keep them within this division.
During the 2150’s, characters such as T’Pol, Sato, Cutler and Jessica Wolff all wore “Sciences Blue” at various points. From the 2230s through the 2250s, science officers on ships like the Shenzhou, Archimedes, and Discovery wore “Sciences Silver”, while their counterparts on Constitution-class vessels such as the Enterprise wore “Sciences Blue”. The Constitution variants were subsequently rolled out fleetwide, in a slightly different shade of blue. Roughly a century later, a variety of characters including physicians, psychologists and scientists all once again wear “Sciences Blue.”
The sole major exception to the color triad occurs during the first half of the 23rd century. Both on the USS Kelvin in 2233, and on the Shenzhou and on the Discovery during the 2250s, medical officers are shown wearing white. It is possible this practice was halted not longer after the Federation-Klingon War, perhaps specifically to avoid giving hostile intruders such obvious targets.
This division include general science officers, physicians, psychologists, astrobiologists, xenoanthropologists, and a range of other scientific disciplines.
Operations
The departments in the “Operations Division” focus on practical application.
They take scientific findings with which they are very familiar and put them to use; they problem-solve, with a low threshold for acceptable results: if it works (safely), then it's good. Engineers use physical scientific principles to problem-solve, while security and tactical officers use social science and strategy principles.
Creative, out-of-the-box solutions are encouraged, and being able to think on your feet and solve the problem in front of you is critical. Their work is also generally fairly localized, allowing them to focus very specifically on the problem at hand, before moving on to the next one.
During the 2150’s, characters such as Tucker and Reed wore “Operations Red”. From the 2230s through the 2250s, engineers on ships like the Shenzhou, Archimedes, and Discovery wore “Operations Copper”, while their counterparts on Constitution-class vessels such as the Enterprise wore “Operations Red”. The Constitution variants were subsequently rolled out fleetwide, with a transitional variant seen in 2265 which adopted the full-color tunic style, but maintained a beige coloring reminiscent of the previous copper (see note). Roughly a century later, engineers, security officers and tactical officers all wear “Operations Gold.”
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This division includes engineers, technicians, operations managers, security personnel, communications officers, tactical officers (though see below), and sometimes certain administrative personnel including yeomen.
Command
The departments in the “Command Division” are required to engage in complex analyses and decision making.
They take information from multiple sources simultaneously and rapidly synthesize comprehensive conclusions, while potentially having to pivot their focus on short notice, temporarily leaving one problem unsolved, efficiently multitasking.
During the 2150’s, characters such as Archer and Mayweather wore “Command Gold”. In 2233, command personnel aboard the USS Kelvin wore “Command Blue” in a full-color tunic that resembled the Constitution variants shown some twenty years later. Also in the 2230s, then-Lieutenant Georgiou wears the “blue jumpsuit” variant, which uses a different color triad; given the precedent established in 2257 (and in the 2370s), it is likely that the Kelvin variants coexisted alongside the “blue jumpsuit” variants — perhaps the Kelvin was the Enterprise of its day.
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From the 2230s through the 2250s, command personnel on ships like the Shenzhou, Archimedes, and Discovery wore “Command Gold” in the “blue jumpsuit” variant, while their counterparts on Constitution-class vessels such as the Enterprise wore “Command Gold” of various shades in the “full color tunic” variant. The Constitution variants were subsequently rolled out fleetwide, with a green wraparound variant seemingly only available to captains. Roughly a century later, starship captains and space station commanders, executive officers and flight control personnel all wear “Command Red.”
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Aboard starships, the members of the Command Division are well-established: captains, first officers and flight control officers. However, as we peek further into Starfleet, we find other departments represented there as well.
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Phaser Control crews in the 2260s are shown in Command Gold (see below). 24th-century officers of the Judge Advocate General, such as Phillipa Louvois and Rear Admiral Bennett are also in Command Red. Intelligence officers such as Worf and “Rota” are in Command, as is Sloan when he appears to work for Internal Affairs. Worf also brings the role of Strategic Operations into the Command Division. And numerous 24th century administrators, including Ensign Weldon, Commander Hilliard, and then-Commander Benteen, are shown in Command (though see below).
The trend we see developing here is that the Command Division encompasses roles that range from administrative to real-time control — all involving some level of command decisions, all involving complex situations with many variables. As such, I and others suggest that dedicated diplomatic officers would likely also be in this division, along with dedicated shuttle pilots.
In all cases, we see an emphasis on the complex analysis of secondary data sources. A JAG officer must weigh this legal precedent against that, must compare the strength of this counsel's argument with the other's. An administrator (and starship CO and XO) must balance multiple priorities, coordinate multiple efforts, make executive decisions on which project gets which resources. An intelligence officer must read countless briefings and analyses and meta-analyses, and conduct their own constant analysis of the information at hand. A diplomat has to constantly balance various parties' interests at once, all while appearing equanimous. And a pilot (and weapons control officer) must bear in mind the position of nearby objects, the capacity of the ship’s engines, the strategic requirements of the situation, the physics of starship motion, and the relevant impact of stellar and interstellar phenomena, all simultaneously.
Administrators
The 24th-century trend points towards administrators being part of the Command Division (c.f. Weldon, Hilliard, Benteen). This is consistent with the general idea of needing to be able to multitask, pivot from crisis to crisis, and engage in some level of command/control. The 23rd-century trend points toward administrators being part of the Operations Division — for example, almost all of the yeomen aboard the NCC-1701 — Rand, Colt, , etc. – are shown in the Operations color of their era. Likewise, Commodore Stone and Commodore Stocker, who are depicted as more paper-pusher administrators than Sisko ever was, despite their shared positions as base commanders, are shown in Operations. On the other hand, Commodore Mendez is shown in Command.
There is logic to both approaches — one could imagine a starship yeomen’s responsibilities being more clearly defined (and thus a better fit for Operations) while an admiral’s adjutant may be responsible for handling a wider range of unexpected circumstances (and thus a better fit for Command). The shift between 23rd and 24th centuries may represent a change in Starfleet’s approach, or it may be that different administrative positions fall under different divisions, depending on their specific job requirements.
Admirals
A conversation between Sisko and Eddington in “The Adversary” has been taken to mean that only Command Division officers can rise to captain or higher. This would seem to be generally true, but not a hard and fast rule. Montgomery Scott held the rank of captain while still maintaining membership in the Operations Division, and Admiral Toddman did the same while serving with Starfleet Security. In the 23rd century, Commodore Stone and Commodore Stocker both wear Operations Red, which is consistent with the general trend of that era of putting administrators in Operations rather than Command. Though all these examples represent a minority, it’s clear that there is no hard requirement that captains and flag officers be part of the Command Division. More likely is that the available positions for such ranks skew toward the Command Division — i.e. a primary reason for promoting someone to admiral is to have them be responsible for a large number of people, which is usually a job for an administrative or command expert; there are cases where you would prefer to have an engineering or security expert managing a large number of people, but they are rarer.
Tactical and Weapons Officers
During the 2260s, operation of shipboard phasers was at least partially executed by the Phaser Control crew, a measure perhaps introduced following the Control Crisis of 2257 or possibly as an anti-telepresence mechanism; these personnel wore Command Gold, reflecting their close relationship to the Flight Control department. It is likely that there is significant cross-training between the two departments during this era, during a time when shipboard weaponry was mounted in single location as opposed to arrays, thus necessitating close teamwork between the two. (This would also dovetail with Chekov’s eventual transfer from navigator to tactical officer in the 2270s.)
A century later, the role of the solitary tactical officer has once again emerged, apparently replacing Phaser Control crews, and reflecting a general trend back towards automation. Until the 2370s, tactical officers were again in the Operations Division, likely due to closer personnel integration with the Security Department, and with the Engineering Department, as weapons systems become more reliant on the computer. (For a real-life analogue, consider that accountants of 100 years ago required high mathematical aptitude; nowadays, wizardry with Excel is just as important if not more.)
However, by 2379, Worf appears to be serving as tactical officer again on the Enterprise while still wearing Command Red. It is possible that tactical officers once again moved back into the Command Division during the Dominion War, as battle tactics shifted more toward fleet engagements and away from one-on-one dogfights. In that environment, a tactical officer would be more akin to a multitasking commander.
Comparing The Divisions
The three divisions form a spectrum of fundamental approaches: the Science Division works slow and deep; the Command Division must work broadly and often with urgency; and the Operations Division falls in the middle, emphasizing straightforward practicality.
Both starship commanders and flight controllers must make split-second choices; engineers rarely must do this and scientists almost never. Security and tactical officers will sometimes need to make split-second choices, though mainly under the commands of a senior officer, and almost invariably within the specific confines of their discipline; they are drilled in making the kind of split-second decisions they need, almost to the point where it is automatic. It would be unusual for security to multitask, though less so for tactical officers, which is why we see that role bouncing between divisions. While doctors too will need to make split-second decisions, their approach, as described above, is fundamentally different from those in the command division — in essence, only within the command division is it acceptable for officers to be slightly reckless – scientists, engineers, security personnel and most of all doctors must be more conservative.
Of course, these divisions only reflect the fundamental approaches of basic training, the "starting points" for each officer. Starfleet officers of all backgrounds are expected to grow and diversify their skills; just because someone received scientific training at the Academy doesn't mean that they can never pick up the practical approaches used in operations. An engineer certainly should not shy away from the slow, in-depth style of the sciences, nor should a scientist avoid the interdisciplinary approach of the command division.
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Why Bother With All These Colors?
I suggest two explanations — one for how this all started, and one for why it was maintained.
As for how it got started: in “Tomorrow Is Yesterday,” Kirk has a curious line, when describing the group that built the Enterprise: “We're a combined service, Captain. Our authority is the United Earth Space Probe Agency.” Author Christopher L. Bennett has explored this idea more fully — that Starfleet was formed from the various interstellar agencies of the Founding Planets of the Federation and that the uniform colors and patches reflect this. He discusses this some in his annotations, but you get a good summary from his sketch of his proposed 2160s uniforms. Likewise, I suggest that the colors may have been chosen in the early-to-mid 22nd century as Earth Starfleet was formed from the merger of, say, a United Earth Science Organization, a United Earth Security Organization, and a United Earth Spaceflight Organization — hence the “combined service.”
The maintenance of different department and division colors could be justified by the need to categorize an unknown officer’s problem-solving skill set during a crisis situation. Need something fixed? A (24th century) goldshirt can probably assist. Need to understand a mysterious phenomenon? Call over a blueshirt. Need someone to delegate prioritization and management to during a crisis? Call a redshirt.
Conclusion and Notes
The core of these categorizations sits with the approaches of each division. The storytelling value is understated but profound — to solve problems, you frequently need to have contributions from all of these approaches. You need cerebral researchers, you need pragmatic builders, and you need bold decision makers. Any one of these working on their own has gaps and blindspots. But working together, they are a force to be reckoned with. Put another way — humanity needs all of us to work together, to succeed.
Thus, as a storytelling device, uniform colors reinforce a core tenet — perhaps the core tenet — of Star Trek: infinite diversity in infinite combinations.
Acknowledgements
My original comment on this topic was in a Daystrom reddit thread by NervousEnergy. Additional tips of the hat to rockerfellerswank, iamzeph, Flynn58, and ConservedQuantity.